The World Trade Center Bombing: Injury Prevention Strategies for High-rise Building Fires

The WTC disaster provided an opportunity to look for ways to prevent morbidity among occupants of high-rise buildings during fires. This paper first describes the overall morbidity resulting from the explosion and fire, and second, presents the results of a case-control study carried out to identify risk factors for smoke-related morbidity. The main ones include: increased age, presence of a pre-existing cardio-pulmonary condition, entrapment in a lift and prolonged evacuation time. Study results point to the importance of the following safety systems during high-rise building fires: smoke-control systems with separate emergency power sources; lift-cars, lift-car position-monitoring systems, and lift-car communication systems with separate emergency power sources; two-way emergency communication systems on all floors and in stairwells; stairwells with emergency lighting and designed for the rapid egress of crowds; evacuation systems/equipment to assist in the evacuation of vulnerable people (elderly, infirm). Also important are evacuation plans that include regularly scheduled safety training and evacuation drills.     

Testing the Basic Assumption of the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to AssessingWetland Functions

The hydrogeomorphic (HGM) approach for developing "rapid" wetland function assessment methods stipulates that the variables used are to be scaled based on data collected at sites judged to be the best at performing the wetland functions (reference standard sites). A critical step in the process is to choose the least altered wetlands in a hydrogeomorphic subclass to use as a reference standard against which other wetlands are compared. The basic assumption made in this approach is that wetlands judged to have had the least human impact have the highest level of sustainable performance for all functions. The levels at which functions are performed in these least altered wetlands are assumed to be "characteristic" for the subclass and "sustainable." Results from data collected in wetlands in the lowlands of western Washington suggest that the assumption may not be appropriate for this region. Teams developing methods for assessing wetland functions did not find that the least altered wetlands in a subclass had a range of performance levels that could be identified as "characteristic" or "sustainable." Forty-four wetlands in four hydrogeomorphic subclasses (two depressional subclasses and two riverine subclasses) were rated by teams of experts on the severity of their human alterations and on the level of performance of 15 wetland functions. An ordinal scale of 1-5 was used to quantify alterations in water regime, soils, vegetation, buffers, and contributing basin. Performance of functions was judged on an ordinal scale of 1-7. Relatively unaltered wetlands were judged to perform individual functions at levels that spanned all of the seven possible ratings in all four subclasses. The basic assumption of the HGM approach, that the least altered wetlands represent "characteristic" and "sustainable" levels of functioning that are different from those found in altered wetlands, was not confirmed. Although the intent of the HGM approach is to use level of functioning as a metric to assess the ecological integrity or "health" of the wetland ecosystem, the metric does not seem to work in western Washington for that purpose.     

Why the Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources Has Not Worked

Abstract:  Genetic diversity is indispensable for long-term forest sustainability and is therefore mentioned in numerous binding and nonbinding political covenants calling for action. Nevertheless, there are significant obstacles to the conservation of forest genetic resources. We discuss hindrances to genetic conservation, mainly in Europe. We identified impediments by reviewing the literature and on the basis of the experiences of the authors in this field and their participation in related political processes. The impediments include (1) difficulties in assessing and monitoring genetic erosion and human impacts (e.g., by the lack of markers showing adaptive variation and the lack of record keeping on the use and transfer of forest-tree germplasm), (2) complexities of European national structures that make the development of a common strategy toward forest genetic conservation problematic, (3) lack of effective forest governance in many parts of the world, (4) the general unattractiveness of genes as flagships in raising public awareness, (5) lack of integration of genetic aspects into biodiversity conservation, and (6) the fact that scientists and politicians are often at cross-purposes. To overcome these impediments, forest geneticists and their peers in species conservation have to participate more actively in decision making. In doing so, they must be prepared to face challenges on 2 fronts: participating in political processes and the provision of significant research findings to ensure that decisions with respect to forest genetic diversity are politically implementable and effectively address targets.     

Biodiversity Loss in Latin American Coffee Landscapes: Review of the Evidence on Ants,Birds, and Trees

Abstract: Studies have documented biodiversity losses due to intensification of coffee management (reduction in canopy richness and complexity). Nevertheless, questions remain regarding relative sensitivity of different taxa, habitat specialists, and functional groups, and whether implications for biodiversity conservation vary across regions. We quantitatively reviewed data from ant, bird, and tree biodiversity studies in coffee agroecosystems to address the following questions: Does species richness decline with intensification or with individual vegetation characteristics? Are there significant losses of species richness in coffee‐management systems compared with forests? Is species loss greater for forest species or for particular functional groups? and Are ants or birds more strongly affected by intensification? Across studies, ant and bird richness declined with management intensification and with changes in vegetation. Species richness of all ants and birds and of forest ant and bird species was lower in most coffee agroecosystems than in forests, but rustic coffee (grown under native forest canopies) had equal or greater ant and bird richness than nearby forests. Sun coffee (grown without canopy trees) sustained the highest species losses, and species loss of forest ant, bird, and tree species increased with management intensity. Losses of ant and bird species were similar, although losses of forest ants were more drastic in rustic coffee. Richness of migratory birds and of birds that forage across vegetation strata was less affected by intensification than richness of resident, canopy, and understory bird species. Rustic farms protected more species than other coffee systems, and loss of species depended greatly on habitat specialization and functional traits. We recommend that forest be protected, rustic coffee be promoted, and intensive coffee farms be restored by augmenting native tree density and richness and allowing growth of epiphytes. We also recommend that future research focus on potential trade‐offs between biodiversity conservation and farmer livelihoods stemming from coffee production.     

Predicting Future Threats to the Native Vegetation of Robinson Crusoe Island, Juan Fernandez Archipelago, Chile

Abstract:   The Juan Fernandez Archipelago, a Chilean national park and biosphere reserve, is 700 km west of continental Chile. Invasive plant species pose major threats to the native, highly endemic vegetation, especially on Robinson Crusoe Island (Mas a Tierra), where there is a permanent settlement. We used historical and recent vegetation map data as well as recent vegetational point data to reconstruct vegetational changes on the island since the early twentieth century. In addition, we used logistic regression models with environmental variables or their surrogates (elevation, solar radiation, topographic similarity index, slope position) to estimate the potential distributions of the worst invaders. Native vegetation has been affected most severely by Acaena argentea , Aristotelia chilensis , Rubus ulmifolius , and Ugni molinae , leading to a significant decrease of endemic plants in the montane forests and native shrublands. The native forest has decreased by approximately one-third. The area affected by Aristotelia chilensis increased from 6.5% to 14% of the total island area. Ugni molinae , once rare, is now abundant (4.6%), as is Acaena (11.9%). Rubus ulmifolius , not present 80 years ago, now covers about 7% of the island's surface. The distributions of all studied species except Rubus ulmifolius are significantly ( p < 0.05) controlled by the environmental factors we examined. Inferring from potential distributions of Aristotelia chilensis and Ugni molinae , 50% of the native montane forest could be invaded or replaced (with a probability of >60%) by these plants. Based on the invasion speed of the past 80 years, this would take another 80 years if conservation measures do not succeed.